More than 30 vehicles collided on the Delhi-Mumbai Expressway due to dense fog. At the same time, a massive fire broke out after several buses and cars collided with each other on the Delhi-Agra Expressway. There are reports of 4 deaths and 25 injuries. Increasing cold and fog have always increased the problems. Be it today’s times or the times of Mughals.The Mughals originally came from areas like Central Asia, yet the winters of India brought many challenges for them.
These challenges were not limited to weather alone, but were felt at every level – politics, war, administration, economy and society.Now that winter has once again knocked in India, do you know what were the hardships of the Mughal period? How did the Mughals deal with it? Which tasks were affected?
Northern India’s harsh winters and attack strategy
During the Mughal era, the mercury used to go down considerably in winter in North India, especially in Punjab, Delhi, Agra and Lahore regions. Conditions like cold winds coming from the mountains, fog, frost and sometimes light snowfall had a deep impact on the army’s activities. Many rivers would become shallow, routes would change due to less water in some areas. Difficulties would increase in the movement of the army, delivery of supplies, crossing of horses and elephants. Due to mist and fog, it would have been difficult to see far, which would have increased the risk of ambush. Due to longer nights and shorter days, the effective time for military activities was limited.
As the fog increased, the risk of enemy attack increased. Photo: Sonu Mehta/HT via Getty Images
Horses, camels and elephants were the backbone of the Mughal army. Diseases increase in cold winds. Due to the fodder being wet or frozen, there would be shortage of food. While traveling long distances, the risk of fatigue and death of animals would increase, which would reduce the strength of the army. Due to all these reasons, the Mughals had to make different strategies of attack and defense according to winter. Many battles were either tried to be settled before winter or winter campaigns were carried out with full preparation.
Logistics and supply issues
Logistics is the most important aspect for any big empire. Winter posed special challenges to the Mughal logistics system. In North India, sowing of wheat and other Rabi crops takes place in winter. Work was going on in the fields, so forcibly taking more supplies from the farmers could create dissatisfaction in the villages.
Cold and moist air increases the risk of rot and insects in grain storage. Secure warehouse and better management would have become necessary. Lighting a fire in winter was not only necessary for cooking food, but also to keep the soldiers warm. Cutting wood from the forests required more time and labor, and placed an additional burden on the laborers accompanying the army. The demand for warm clothes, quilts, blankets, tents and woolen clothes for soldiers and officers would increase.
In the capital and major cities like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, woolen clothes, pashmina, fur jackets etc. were made from special royal factories for the courtiers, whose cost was high. Due to these logistics problems, the Mughal administration had to make special arrangements before the winter.
It became difficult for the Mughals to fight the war in winter.
Impact on military operations
There are many examples in history that the Mughals and their opponents Rajput, Afghan, Maratha or Deccani Sultans used to plan wars keeping in mind the weather. Forts had thick walls, closed windows and places to burn fires everywhere to protect from the cold wind. The soldiers surrounded outside would have been more affected by cold, hunger and disease, while the defenders inside the fort would have been relatively safe. This could have prolonged the siege.
Pneumonia, fever, respiratory diseases etc. caused by cold were big problems for the soldiers. Services of medicines and legal practitioners were limited. The fall of soldiers in long battles or campaigns would affect both numbers and morale. There were special difficulties in winter on the route towards Kashmir, Afghan border, hilly areas and Deccan. Natural challenges like snow in the mountains, slippage, strong cold winds and landslides were dangerous for the heavy and slow army of the Mughals. For this reason, Mughal rulers often launched winter campaigns only when there was political compulsion.
Challenges of administration and court
Mughal administration was complex and elaborate. In winter, the pace of work changed in both the capital and the provinces. Many times, emperors like Shahjahan or Akbar would change their camp according to the weather, such as moving from Agra to Lahore or Kashmir, or staying in places that were warmer than Delhi. Hundreds of nobles, thousands of soldiers, artisans, servants, horses, elephants, treasure and records had to be taken along with the court. This in itself would have been a major administrative operation. Due to the increasing burden on farmers due to the time of sowing of crops, the policy of revenue collection would have to be softened or flexible. Many times officials were not able to visit villages regularly due to cold, which led to increase in corruption, black marketing and arbitrariness of local chieftains.
In winter, the frequency of courts and administrative meetings in small towns and villages would reduce, as officials would avoid travelling. The result would have been that the judicial process would have slowed down and public complaints would have remained unresolved for a long time.
Mughal emperor Akbar. Photo: Getty Images
economy and trade
Winter also had a significant impact on the economy of the Mughal era. Caravans coming from Kabul, Kandahar, Bukhara and Iran had to pass through mountain passes. In winter, many passes would be closed due to snowfall, which would hamper the trade of silk, horses, precious stones and spices. Transport from North India to sea ports would also have slowed down, as cold winds, fog and bad roads would have increased the risk.
To avoid the cold, people would start work late in the morning and end early in the evening, which would affect overall productivity. Nevertheless, winter was also a profitable season for the trade in woolen textiles, carpets, furs and warm clothing, which benefited some industries. The success of Rabi crops largely depended on a favorable winter. In case of very severe cold or frost, the crop would get damaged, which would have a direct impact on the revenue. If there was a bad harvest in any year, the revenue would decrease and it would be difficult to meet the expenses of the army and administration, especially when military operations were already going on.
Social and cultural aspects
The Mughal court saw winter not only as a challenge but also as a cultural opportunity. But for the common man these challenges were much more severe. In winter, special dishes, dry fruits, hot drinks, kebabs, non-veg dishes, and dishes made with honey, saffron and ghee were popular. Royal palaces had basements, thick walls, carpets on the floors, quilts and fireplaces. Music, Qawwali, Mushaira and dance ceremonies made the long winter nights colourful.
Farmers and laborers often do not have sufficient stock of woolen clothes or food. The cold and dampness of the kutcha houses increased disease, and medical facilities were limited. Whenever the army passed through an area, extortion of fodder, fuel and grains would put additional burden on the villagers. In this way, the winter season could be full of comforts and cultural colors for the royal class, while the common people lived it as a struggle.
Mughals took many measures to deal with the cold.
Despite the challenges, the Mughal rulers tried to adapt themselves to the winters of India.Thick walls, low and small windows, indoor fireplaces, cavernous rooms, high verandahs and closed corridors were used in buildings to provide protection from cold winds.At places like Red Fort, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri, separate sections were made for both summer and winter. A mixture of Indian clothing with Central Asian clothing began to appear, such as fur or woolen lined robes, pajamas, shawls, pashmina, kamkhaab, velvet, etc. Gradually, these clothes were not limited only to the royal court but also became popular among the rich and elite sections of the cities. The calendar of administrative activities started being decided according to crops, rains and winter and summer, so that there was minimum hindrance in tax collection, campaigns and travels.
Hindustan’s winters were not just a change in weather for the Mughal Empire. They were a comprehensive package of political, military, economic and social challenges. Severe cold, fog, problems of logistics, care of animals, dependence on crops, difficulty of trade routes, administrative slowness and increased troubles of the common people, all these together made winter a difficult period for the Mughals. Nevertheless, the Mughals found ways to meet these challenges through architecture, textiles, cuisine, administrative policies and cultural activities. It was this adaptability that helped them rule India for centuries, even though the winters that came every year kept testing them.
Also read: Where did the spices for Mughlai food, for which even the British were crazy, come from? India is not alone in the list